Psychology Project Racism Essay Example for Free

Psychology Project Racism Essay Racism People see it every day across the world. A group of whites burn down a black , someone gets hurt or murdered from a racial insult, or fights break out at school or in public. These are the extremes of racism. Racism is definitely not a good thing; it’s a power that has taken over through the present daytime. What will the future bring for Racism? What are the main problems of racism? Can we get a hold on racism throughout the world or will we self-destruct in our own hate? Racism is everywhere, as much as today tries to hide it or say that we resolved it years ago. Racism is still all over the place. Definition of Racism: Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. Racial separatism is the belief, most of the time based on racism, that different races should remain apart from one another. Racism has existed throughout human history: It may be defined as the hatred of one person by another or the belief that another person is less than human because of skin color, language, customs, and place of birth or any factor that supposedly reveals the basic nature of that person. Prejudice: If someone is a racist they are of course, prejudiced. Prejudice is when someone doesn’t like someone else for the way they look.. It flies right over their heads schools, the workplace, our community, our friend’s  house, even our homes. Racist or prejudice jokes are not harmless and it is a reality today. Racist jokes are just the start of it. Many people think the jokes are funny. Maybe they are, but they still hurt the people the jokes are about. Superiority: Superiority is a big part of racism. Every race thinks that they are superior to other ,that they are the best . The power issue may make the difference, that’s one of the main reasons. Each race thinks they are a better race.. Therefore, they fight and create violence to justify who is the greater race. But the reality is, that it doesn’t matter who you are or what color you are. Forms of Racism: †¢Individual Racism takes the form of individual attitudes, beliefs, values and be haviors. Some examples of racist attitudes are racial prejudice, belittling, jealousy and bigotry. †¢Institutional or Systemic Racism takes the form of the practices, customs, rules and standards of organizations that unnecessarily disadvantage people because of their race, color or ethnicity. †¢Cultural Racism is the cultural values and standards that disadvantage people because of their race, color or ethnicity. . Bio-psycho-social-spiritual phenomenon of racism: Racism is the outward manifestation of an inward system. This system justifies power of position by placing a negative meaning and value on perceived or actual biological/cultural differences. This system gives biological differences, such as skin color, texture of the hair, physical features; or cultural differences, such as language, religion, ethnicity, or accent, a negative value and meaning. In real they are merely biological or cultural necessities. Thus, there is nothing wrong with the color black, brown or yellow. It is not skin color that forms the basis for discrimination, but the negative meaning and value given to the color of skin. Color is neutral; it is the mind that gives it meaning. Neither are women discriminated against because of their gender. If gender were the problem then the solution would also be to have a sex-change operation. But the problem is not gender but value systems.. Women are discriminated against because of the negative meaning and value given to their gender. How one defines a situation depends on how one perceives it. That’s the psycho pattern. The meaning that  people therefore give to their reality, whether or not true, causes people to behave in a manner that makes the original meaning actually come true. The interpretive meaning called perception.. The same goes with the spiritual dimension, the fourth factor. In order to justify such evil use of power, people will appeal to those moral systems which give them a sense of meaning, rightness, and ultimate value in life, their ideological belief systems, which serve as the highest authority in their lives, the moral basis of their existence. Like this the bio-psycho-social-spiritual framework works -and how it shapes our world. Common factors of Racism: †¢Color: Prejudice or discrimination in which human beings are treated differently based on the social meanings attached to skin color †¢Religion: Religious discrimination involves treating a person (an applicant or employee) unfavorably because of his or her religious beliefs. Religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, but also others who have sincerely held religious, ethical or moral beliefs. †¢Gender: Granting or denying rights or privileges to a person based on their gender. No Boundaries: Victims and perpetrators of racial prejudice are not confined to any period in history, place, skin color, income group or other boundary. No one is immune! But the images we associate with the term racism depend largely on the part of the world in which we live. For instance, in different countries most commonly think of tension between whites and blacks, or increasingly, Hispanics and blacks or whites. Further back, though, other forms existed. Racism –different countries: Racism world-wide is manifested in every continent. In Europe, extreme racist groups have gained more and more acceptability in countries like France, Germany, and Austria. In Australia, the Aborigines have lost much of their land and have been the victim of extreme prejudice. Not only has Apartheid legalized separation been practiced in Australia, it has been a well-publicized condition in South Africa. Many African countries have endured long-term civil wars, some beginning shortly after that nation’s freedom from former colonial  countries. In Asia, Cambodians harbor extreme prejudices against the Vietnamese, and Chinese students have been forbidden access to higher education in Malaysia. In the Middle East, antagonism between the Israelis and the Palestinians continues to exist. Racism in Pakistan: In Pakistan people do face problem regarding racism and its done on the following bases. †¢Socio economic status †¢Gender †¢Color †¢Religion †¢Cast †¢Provincial Causes of racism: Major causes of racism common in all societies are: †¢Lack of self love †¢feeling of unworthiness †¢desire to feel superior †¢Fear of loss and displacement †¢lack of understanding †¢false perceptions †¢Ignorance, †¢Xenophobia †¢Brainwashing †¢ upbringing, †¢negative experiences with individuals of a given race, †¢negative images portrayed in media and societal stereotypes, †¢hate †¢ lack of education, †¢distorted thinking †¢ fear †¢Selfishness †¢Environmental Factors Effects of racism: It is said that â€Å" Racism always breaks a country and spoils a society.† The effects that are commonly observed are: †¢Self hate †¢ Suicide †¢Self harm issues †¢Eating disorders †¢Fear of going to school/public places (agoraphobia) †¢Bullying †¢Knife and gun crime †¢Panic attacks †¢Violence †¢hate crimes †¢inequality †¢inhumanity †¢intolerance †¢trade imbalance †¢depression †¢self loathing Racism and future: Today we are living in a load of social issues that we have to deal with and racism is one of them. People blame their faults and disappointments against society and the whole race in which they live in. but anyone can do good or excel if they put their mind to it. The future, when you hear the word – Racism you start to think about advancing our technology and furthering science. You think of exploring new boundaries and seeing new places. A better world, but a worse world is what we see. The technology may improve as we go deeper into the next century, but what about the children of today that are responsible for the future? Right now, we are only hurting ourselves with racism and hate. We have taken many steps in controlling this disease, but like most diseases, they spread. Does God do favoritism? God is the  Creator of all the races—yellow, black and white (with brown and red). Each has strengths and gifts as well as weaknesses. For our better future it is important to finish this discrimination. If He has created everyone equally then who are we to judge? Who are we to complain? Who are we to discriminate? We being a Muslim, how can we do such a thing? Our religion has a clear concept about equality. It’s clearly written in the Holy book that no one is superior to another. Our God has created everyone equally. Its His choice how and what He do†¦ What Can We Do? â€Å"Racism isnt born, its taugh† Where there is a problem, there is a solution. The only solution that seems to be found is to stop the hate. Dr. Martin Luther King said: â€Å"I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.† He had a dream.Its up to us that how and what we make a world without racism†¦. Changes: self-awareness†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Reengineering our attitudes about race means that we must examine ourselves. †¢Closely examine your values and beliefs; why do you think, believe, and behave toward others as you do. †¢Remember, one of the bases of prejudice is ignorance. Try not to ignore but to know other. †¢Measure your words carefully before you speak to others. †¢Try to be a human first . Society is formed by us †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.society changes can be . †¢Do not tolerate prejudiced people, prejudiced talk, or racist action. †¢Give good literature, recommend films, lectures, meetings to your friends and family. †¢Write letters to newspapers, magazines, and TV sponsors giving your opinion on statements and actions that demean people. †¢Organize a cleanup or rebuilding campaign †¢Make an effort to support minority cultural events †¢ Make an effort to teach the value of equality and tolerance For Institutions-Effecting Change: †¢For institutions to change, their culture, vision, values, and ideology must change. All policies must be based around a single ideology. †¢Examine an institutions deep belief and value systems †¢Hold training seminars in intercultural competence: †¢self-acceptance. †¢Put people to work and interact in interracial learning teams so as to develop positive attitudes and cross-ethnic friendships. †¢Make a commitment and act on it! Things You Can Do in the Schools: This can be done in a school or university setting. †¢sponsor panel discussions †¢awareness activities †¢cultural †¢projects that will promote cultural understanding and inclusiveness. †¢anti-racism education in your schools curriculum †¢events relating to a variety of cultures.. †¢Example: The Book of Dreams To sum it up: Figuring out what to do about the ugly reality of racism in our communities presents a difficult challenge. There is no single or easy set of instructions that will eliminate racism once and for all. Instead, it is something we must continually work against choosing the strategies and actions that will be most effective in our own individual communities. In this resource, weve suggested such strategies and actions, and shown examples of how many of them have been put into practice in real communities. When you start deciding how to reduce racism in your own community, feel free to use any of these ideas, but also feel free to be creative and come up with your own solutions as well. Remember: â€Å"Rainbows arent just one color. Theyre every single color. Be a rainbow. Enjoy all of the colors in the world.†

An Analysis Of Pulling Levers Policing

An Analysis Of Pulling Levers Policing Many jurisdictions have been experimenting with comparatively new problem-oriented policing models to halt gun and gang violence among chronic young offenders. Originating in Boston, one approach is the focused deterrence strategy, also known as pulling levers. Its intentions are to affect the demeanor and surroundings of the serious offenders that are known as being at the center of the gun and gang problems. The strategy seeks permanent elimination of the drug dealing with corresponding reduction in crime and improvement in the quality of life within the neighborhood.( Corsaro et al., Oct. 2009, p. 2) The pulling levers plan of attack tries to deter the violence by making potential offenders believe that stern and swift consequences would follow such behavior. A major part of the pulling levers strategy is the delivery of a straightforward message to a small group of offenders, letting them know what behavior will not be tolerated and the consequences of that behavior. There are so me key elements to the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. In addition, the pulling levers strategy has several advantages and disadvantages. When implementing the pulling levers strategy, several key elements have to be in place in order for it to be successful. These key elements give the pulling levers strategy an advantage over traditional policing. The first element is enlisting the help and support of the community. Residents have to feel that the actions of the officers are legitimate and that nonviolent youth are not being put at risk of being caught up in the justice system. The gathering of a multiagency enforcement group with the power to make decisions is the second element. The group should include police, probation, and parole, as well as state and federal prosecutors. Most often offenders are involved in a wide range of other crimes, which leaves them open for law enforcement to pull every lever of criminal justice intervention to crack down. There is an enormous sanctioning power that the enforcement community could bring to bear against particular gangs and gang members.(Kennedy, Spring 1997, p. 461) The t hird element is having an effective way of communicating with offenders. The multiagency group needs to show offenders the cause and effect of the pulling levers intervention. A direct message that violence will not be tolerated and every legal action will be taken to prevent such violence. The message can be delivered in a variety of ways, such as talking directly to the violent offenders on the streets or holding a public forum with a group of invited offenders. The multiagency group assumes that the message will be reverberated to other offenders through an informal communication network. Another key element is getting researchers involved in the process. Researchers can provide the interagency enforcement group with reliable data and performance evaluations of strategys progress. Research has shown that the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy to be useful in decreasing gun violence among young chronic offenders. The most known is the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire intervention. It was attributable to a significant decrease in homicides among youth, and nonfatal gun violence. Replications of the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire strategy have also shown reductions in gun violence. There are two more very important advantages to implementing the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy. First, each gain of control applied increases the effectiveness of the pulling levers strategy. As the baseline level of violence begins to diminish, the multiagency working groups response to new violence problems should increase. Second, it divides the general load of these offenses. For example, instead of patrol officers taking on the general load of deterring violent offenses the responsibility is shared with personnel from other agencies, such as probation, parole, and social service. A challenge or disadvantage that the pulling levers strategy faces is its relatively small scientific evidence. It has been demonstrated in several replications that the pulling levers strategy works when dealing with young serious violent offenders, but it has yet to be implemented for other problems. Another problem is establishing trust with the community. One of the main steps toward implementing the pulling levers strategy is having the trust of the community. Distrust corrodes the creative process that criminal justice agencies and community-based organizations are necessarily engaged in.(as cited in Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 184) Without community trust and support the program will surely fail. Establishing trust can be very difficult in communities where racial tensions between the residents and the police are present. For example, in Boston a new mechanism of police accountability was necessary in order to create trust that that new programs would be beneficial to the com munity (as cited by Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 172) due to the perception of racism that existed. The community has to be able to hold law enforcement accountable for their actions and have to know that any actions taken by law enforcement will keep them safe and not cause further detriment to the community. Safety is only one dimension on which citizens evaluate police actions(Fagan, Summer-Autumn 2002, p. 139). Also, lever-pulling is resource draining. There are many time-consuming aspects, including organizing and attending the meetings, ensuring compliance with the conditions of probation, and responding to a violent act.(Chermack, Jan. 2008, p. 49) In the end the pulling levers focused deterrence strategy depends on two pertinent components: how well the consequences are customized to the targeted offenses, and if the promises made to would-be offenders are kept. Unfulfilled promises and hollow threats from law enforcement can only lead to more problems with the offenders. In order to establish trust with the community and instill fear in the offenders all promises and threats should be carried out. Also, without the political support of the community, the police cannot pursue an innovative enforcement strategy that targets truly dangerous youth at the heart of urban youth violence problems. (as cited in Weisburd and Braga, 2007, p. 185) 2. How would you conduct a study to test whether pulling levers policing works? You must use qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed methods design. Detail the steps from start to finish including the measures you wish to test. The goal of conducting a study to measure the pulling levers strategy is to help facilitate better decisions by law enforcement agencies. The study should help answer two questions: Was there a decrease in the problem and if so was it the result of the response imposed? By answering these questions law enforcement can decide whether to end the pulling levers strategy and focus resources elsewhere or to apply the response to other problems. The type of design used in this study is an experimental quantitative design . By using this type of study, changes can be evaluated mathematically before and after the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. For example, the study being conducted wants to know if there was a decrease in youth homicides after the implementation of the pulling levers strategy. First, the study would take place in a large metropolitan city where youth homicides are above the national average, like Chicago, Illinois. The first set on analyses would be gathered from secondary information sources for demographic, policing, economic, and homicide patterns over a span of 2000-2009. This will be the main database used for the analysis. Official police data would be obtained from the Chicago Police Departments statistical reports. Economical and demographic data would be gathered from the 2000 U.S. Census. Economic data would also be gathered from the U. S Bureau of Labor Statistics. From the information gathered the officers will found out who are the target offenders and areas with the highest youth homicide rates would be the communities used in the study. Much crime-violent, drug, property, and domestic-is concentrated in certain neighborhoods, particularly poor minority neighborhoods.(Kennedy, 1997, p. 459) Two teams of officers would be organized to patrol the beat in these two communities to implement the pulling levers strategy. This would take place over the span of three years. The officers using the pulling levers strategy would deliver a specific deterrence message to the youth offenders. In the case of the Boston Gun Project/Operation Ceasefire the message was delivered in formal meetings with gang members; through individual police and probation contacts with gang members; through meetings with inmates of secure juvenile facilities in the city; and through gang outreach workers.(Braga et al., 2001, p.5) Also, a multiagency law enforcement team would convene several meetings with serious gang offenders where the team would communicate its new standards for conduct, indicating that violence will not be tolerated. Each offender has certain background characteristics.that interact with dynamic characteristics(DeMichele and Paparozzi, Oct. 2008, p. 70). So when there is a violation of these rules, the multiagency law enforcement team would respond by using all available sanctions or levers to punish the offender. Those in which these sanctions were imposed on would become the source of discussion in subsequent meetings with potential would-be offenders. In terms of analysis, one of the most widely adopted statistical procedures in econometrics and criminal justice used to determine the impact of programs and public policies is time series analysis.(Corsaro et al., Oct. 2009, p. 20) During the three years, analysis of the strategys impact would consist of a time-series design. Every month the strategy would be reassessed. A count of youth homicides would be conducted to see if the program is working properly. Also there would be a monthly count of calls for shots fired. Once the three-year implementation of the program has concluded the data for the youth homicides and calls for shots fired would be compared to the data before program implementation. Key outcome variables would be the monthly number of youth homicide victims 21 or younger in the two targeted areas, and a monthly count of shots-fired citizen calls citywide. Also, youth homicide trends in would be compared with the youth homicide trends in other large U.S. cities. The implementation of the program would start in April, 2010 and end April, 2013. If the program was implemented successfully the time series analyses should show a reduction in monthly number of youth homicides from pretest to posttest. There should also be a significant decrease in calls for shots fired. With the successful implementation of the pulling levers strategy there should be an overall decrease in criminal activities with the communities and the city. An important question for policymakers to consider when deciding to implement a lever-pulling strategy is whether a working group is willing to commit the time and resources for effective follow-up.(Chermack, Jan. 2008, p. 152) Communities that suffer loss and injury from gun violence are most often those that are racially segregated and socially disadvantaged. Policing in this social context requires sensitivity to questions of legitimacy and procedural fairness.(Fagan, Autumn-Summer 2002, p. 147)

Essay --

INTRODUCTION Sir Alex Chapman Ferguson, a football living legend was born on 31st December, 1941 in Glasgow, Scotland. In his entire lifespan as a football player and a manager, he has been one of the most consistent and remarkable name in the game. He was a former football player at the Scottish football team and has also played for various English clubs. He became the top goal scorer by scoring 31 goals in the Scottish League. Later, in 1974, his career as a football manager got a kick start when he was elected as the manager of a team called East Stirlingshire. Afterwards, he was shifted to many clubs and was elected for the same post in the clubs including St. Mirren and Aberdeen. Also, he got elected as the manager of Scotland’s international team and led them for a year. In the year 1986 his path to glory started when he was elected as the manager of one of the most popular and one of the biggest football club of the prevailing time ‘Manchester united’. He has been on t he same post since then and his career of 26 years at Manchester United has been one of the most glorious and exciting one for any manager in the world of sports. He is charismatic, smart, and flexible and his workaholic type attitude has profited the team as a whole in so many ways and thus he is an important and influential part of the team. He has led the team on the victory path from 6 November, 1986 to 19 May, 2013 when he announced his retirement. This period witnessed the Manchester United with a win percentage of 59.67 %. â€Å"Some people do not want to work but I want to continue working.† - Sir Alex Ferguson. ACHIEVEMENTS Under Sir’s... .../authors/a/alex_ferguson.html. Last accessed 07 March 2014. Alex Ferguson Quotes | Football+science.(2014). Alex Ferguson Quotes. Available: http://footballsci.wordpress.com/quotes/alex-ferguson-quotes/. Last accessed 09 March 2014. Leadership Styles - Leadership Skills from MindTools.com. (2014). Leadership Styles - Leadership Skills from MindTools.com. Available at:http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_84.htm. Last Accessed 07 March 2014. Top 10 Quotes by Sir Alex Ferguson | Sir Alex 26 Year Anniversary. (2014). Top 10 Quotes by Sir Alex Ferguson | Sir Alex 26 Year Anniversary. Available at: http://manutddiehardfans.com/top-10-quotes-by-sir-alex-ferguson/. Last Accessed 01 March 2014. Alex Ferguson Leadership. (2014). Alex Ferguson Leadership. Available at: http://www.leadership-with-you.com/alex-ferguson-leadership.html. Last Accessed 07 March 2014.

History Of IBM :: essays research papers fc

IBM- International Business Machines Corporation History: Though the building blocks of IBM reach back into the mid 1880’s, the company was officially founded in 1911 when Charles F. Flint engineered the merger of Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company, Computing Scale Company of America and International Time Recording Company. The agreed upon name was Computing- Tabulating- Recording Company or C-T-R. C-T-R soon found itself struggling do to over diversification of its product. In 1914 Thomas J. Watson, Sr. was brought in to help homogenize the company. He succeeded to turn the company around in just 11 months and redirected its focus to producing large-scale, custom-built tabulating solutions for businesses and left the rest of their former endeavors to the competition. Over the next four years, with Watson at the helm, the company’s revenues doubled and expanded operations to Europe, South America, Asia, and Australia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Over the next decade C-T-R continued to innovate in their industry and bought out addition companies and patents. This additional growth of the company made the old name too limited for their ambitious pursuits and in 1924 they formally changed the name over to International Business Machines Corporation or IBM.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the Great Depression IBM was able to continue to grow and innovate even when demand for their products began to drop. Because of their build op of data processing machines IBM won the governments social security act contract in 1935 and became responsible for keeping track of 26 million people, essentially ensuring a strong future for the company for at least the next decade.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1940’s IBM with a joint effort from Harvard University completed the first ever Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, also called the Mark I. In the 1950’s IBM’s computers became smaller and more practical for business applications such as billing, payroll and inventory control. In the 1960’s Thomas J. Watson, Jr took over control of the company from his father and directed into a new more consumer friendly environment. IBM was the first computing company to sell computers without software bundled into the package, this move would spawn the multi-billion dollar software industry that exist today, of which IBM is still an industry leader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1970’s and 80’s IBM worked to get the computer smaller and more convenient for the household format. Floppy disks were introduced to the public market as personal self storage devices. IBM also developed the first Intranet in the mid 80’s and created the foundations for what would later become the internet.

Behavior problems in children and adolescents

Studies regarding substance abuse (alcohol included) yielded results that clearly associate self esteem closely to it. Those who are engaged in alcohol use in later or older age do so because they have learned the use of it in their early and moldable years (11 years old or 5th & 6th grade). Consequently, attempts have been made to deal with the area of self-esteem in hopes that when this psychological problem among teens is addressed properly, substance abuse might somehow be curbed.There are programs that cater to this need and they are actually placed side by side with the traditional curriculums of some schools. Experts and researchers believe that this quandary of alcohol abuse among teens may be helped by treating it in a stage where it is less obvious – that is, when the youngster is not yet manifesting or is obviously using alcohol, but on the brink of experimenting on it (Donnelly, 2007). The line of attack of this particular method is directed towards factors that ar e crucial to the make up of adolescents’ life experiences.Understanding the transitions that teenagers most likely will go through is the underlying principle that facilitated the study that eventually led to the formation of this program. Hence, the high hopes that the proponents of this program maintain. In this paper, the author tries to explore and explain the rubric of the particular synopsis mentioned above and to finally (in the process) convince its readers of its viability in decreasing the problem of alcoholism among teens and young adults in the coming years.It explains the rationale behind the effectiveness of the curriculum since the whole program is aimed at the core level of the perpetual potential problem of alcohol addiction. ~What you learned. The National Association for Self-Esteem (NASE), as the very name of the association clearly implies, believe that the self-esteem of the individual plays a major role why or why not that particular person is using/abu sing or not using/abusing alcohol. The observation is that teenagers with low self esteem have higher likelihood to experiment not only with alcohol but with other harmful psychoactive substances than those with high self-esteem.Furthermore, their studies yield evidences that point to the fact that individuals with positive self-esteem show not only little serious involvement with addictive substances but lesser tendency to risk trying the pleasures of these drugs. Convinced of this observation, self-esteem proponents constantly research and write articles that speak to the issue. They support a prevention program which has within it as crucial part â€Å"self-esteem enhancement. † Not any prevention program or traditional approach to the problem will achieve a longer-lasting effect.Overwhelming data available have proven that traditional school programs are not sufficient to address the issue; in order to be really effective in curbing alcoholism among teenagers, it is very important that as researches yield additional information, new strategies should be incorporated and employed as well. Important factors along with self-esteem that must be tackled include: personal efficacy, ability to decide wisely for oneself, and communication skills, etc. These areas must be developed since they influence and affect the behavior of an individual.It is believed that when these basic skills are taught and cultivated, rather than concentrating on the harmful effects of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs, the benefits will be much more than the reduction of the likelihood of teenagers and young adults to use and abuse drugs. Involvement with other behavioral correlates like unsafe sexual encounters, and teenage pregnancy, will also diminish. The timing of the implementation of this kind of preventive program in schools for it to really achieve its goal among teenagers is also emphasized. It has to be implemented early, or else, its efficacy will lessen.Dr. Joseph Donnelly (self-esteem proponent) said: â€Å"It is much easier to prevent adolescents from ever engaging in the use of substances than it is to deter that use once it has begun. † ~One question you have. Self-esteem is indeed all important aspect that influences other facets of an adolescent’s life. Question remains especially to one who had had enormous experiences in psychotherapy and in dealing with myriad problems and situations/scenarios besetting the youth experimenting with alcohol: cynics question the simplistic apprehension and approach.What about the role of modeling by parents hardly making breakthroughs in these adolescents who make alcohol their refuge but also as a way of life like their parents did? Reference: Donnelly, Joseph. Self-Esteem and it's Relationship to Alcohol and Substance Abuse Prevention in Adolescents. Dept. of Health Professions/PERLS National Association for Self-esteem. Accessed January 2008.

British Literature Essay

This lesson is a continuation of the study of British literature and will focus on literature from the Neoclassical Period to today. This lesson is only an overview of some of the authors and literary works produced in England during a particular period. There are many other authors that made important contributions to the literature of this time period. The periods of British Literature are: Classical Period (1200 BC to 455 AD) Medieval Period (455 AD to 1485) Renaissance and the Commonwealth Period (1485 to 1660) Neoclassical Period (1660 to 1790) Romantic Period (1790 to 1830) Victorian Period (1832 to 1901) Edwardian Era (1901 to 1910) Modernism (1914 to 1945) Post-Modernism Period from 1945 to the present Neoclassical Period (1660-1790) The Enlightenment (also referred to as the Neoclassical Period or the Age of Reason) was based on the concept that people could find perfection and happiness through reason and knowledge. This essentially humanist vision was characterized by a resistance to religious authority. The Enlightenment began during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe and eventually spread to America. The Restoration, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Johnson were time periods that were included in the Enlightenment. Literature from the colonial period and the beginning of the revolutionary period in American literature developed during this time. Two prominent American authors of the era were Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine. During the Restoration, British monarch Charles II was restored to the throne (hence the name of the era), marking the decline of the Puritan influence on British literature. Writers of the Neoclassical Period John Dryden Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet and dramatist. Some of his famous poems include â€Å"Astrea Redux,† â€Å"Absalom and Achitophel,† and â€Å"The Hind and the Panther. † He is also known for his play All for Love. Dryden was the British poet laureate from 1670 to 1689. John Locke Locke (1631-1704) was an English philosopher who wrote the essay â€Å"Concerning Human Understanding. † He believed that the only way a person could gain knowledge was through experience. Locke’s Two Treatises on Government promoted ideas about democracy. William Wycherley Wycherley (1640-1716) was an English dramatist whose works include Love in a Wood, The Country Wife, and The Plain Dealer. Samuel Pepys Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) was a government official and writer who lived in England. His famous Diary is an important source of the lifestyles and history of the English people. Aphra Behn Behn (1640-1689) was an English novelist and dramatist and the first female to make a living from her writing. Some of her works include Oroonoko, The Forced Marriage, The Rover, and The Lucky Chance. The Augustan Age (1700-1750), named for the Roman emperor Augustus, witnessed a return to the Latin literature of the ancient Roman Empire. British writers were influenced by the works of the ancient Roman poets Horace and Virgil during this era. Writers of the Augustan Age Joseph Addison Addison (1672-1719) was an English poet, essayist, dramatist, and member of Parliament. One of his well-known literary works was the poem â€Å"The Campaign. † Sir Richard Steele Steele (1672-1729) was an essayist and dramatist from Ireland. With Joseph Addison, he founded the journals The Tattler, The Spectator, and The Guardian. He was elected to Parliament and was later knighted. Two of his plays include The Funeral and The Conscious Lovers. Jonathan Swift Swift (1667-1745) was an Irish satirist who used Juvenalian satire to criticize the society of his day in Gulliver’s Travels. Some of his other works include A Tale of a Tub and A Modest Proposal. In 1694, he was ordained in the Church of England. Alexander Pope Pope (1688-1784) was a poet and writer of satire who was famous for his use of the heroic couplet in his writings. Some of his works include The Rape of the Lock, The Temple of Fame, An Essay on Man, and Moral Essays. Daniel Defoe Defoe (1660-1731) was a journalist who wrote Robinson Crusoe. Some of his other works include The True-Born Englishman, Moll Flanders, and A Journal of the Plague Year. he Age of Johnson, named for Samuel Johnson (an important figure in English literature in the late 1700s), lasted from 1750-1790. Writers of the Age of Johnson Samuel Johnson Johnson (1709-1784) was an English author famous for his Dictionary of the English Language, The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia, and The Lives of the English Poets. He is also remembered for forming a group of writers called the Literary Club. Oliver Goldsmith Goldsmith (1728-1774) was an English dramatist, essayist, poet, and novelist and was a member of the Literary Club. Goldsmith wrote the novel The Vicar of Wakefield. Other works include the poem â€Å"The Deserted Village† and the play She Stoops to Conquer. Edmund Burke Burke (1729-1797) served as a member of Parliament during the American Revolution. He supported the rights of the colonists and urged the British government to compromise with the American colonies. Some of his writings were critical of the French Revolution. Robert Burns Burns (1759-1796) was a Scottish songwriter and poet. Two of Burns’ better known songs are â€Å"Auld Lang Syne† and â€Å"Comin’ Thro’ the Rye. † James Boswell Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish author who wrote the biography The Life of Samuel Johnson. He was a member of Samuel Johnson’s Literary Club, and the two men traveled together. Boswell’s Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides is an account of one of their trips. Edward Gibbon Gibbon (1737-1794) was a leading historian whose most famous work was the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Gray Gray (1716-1771) was an English poet whose style was used by many of the Romantic writers. His most famous work was Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Olaudah Equiano Equiano (c. 1750 – c. 1797) was an African slave who was brought to the West Indies. He received some education and was later granted his freedom by his master. He was the first black to write an autobiography in England. He wrote The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African in 1789. Romantic Period (1790-1830) Romanticism is the school of thought and period of literature in which emotion, passion, and imagination are considered more important than reason and intuition more important than logic. During the Romantic Period, most writers were discontented with commercial, inhuman, and standardized conditions. Many Romantic writers portrayed people in unrealistic situations. To escape from modern life, the Romantics turned their interest to remote and faraway places, the medieval past, folklore and legends, nature, and the common people. Romantics glorified the individual and believed that people must be free from confining rules and able to develop individually. The Romantic novels described exciting adventures, unexplained events, and the evil influences of obsessions. Writers of the Romantic Period William Blake Blake (1757-1827) was an English poet, artist, and prominent figure of Romanticism. Some of his works included Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. Blake created the illustrations in some of his books such as The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. William Wordsworth Wordsworth (1770-1850) was a Romantic poet whose literary works focused on the beauty of nature. He teamed with Samuel Taylor Coleridge to write Lyrical Ballads, marking the beginning of the Romantic movement. Other works include The Solitary Reaper and the autobiographical poem â€Å"Prelude. † Samuel Coleridge Coleridge (1772-1834) was a poet and philosopher from England. He coauthored Lyrical Ballads with William Wordsworth. His most famous works include â€Å"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner† and â€Å"Kubla Khan. † Percy Bysshe Shelly Shelly (1792-1822) was an English poet whose many poems contained political and religious themes. His works include â€Å"Ode to the West Wind,† â€Å"The Cloud,† and â€Å"The Skylark. † John Keats Keats (1795-1821) was a poet who focused on death, love, and beauty. His works include â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale† and â€Å"On a Grecian Urn. † Sir Walter Scott Scott (1771-1832) was a Scottish novelist and poet who became a lawyer in 1792. He was credited with creating the historical novel. Scott became one of the leading literary figures of his day. Scott’s works of poetry include â€Å"The Lay of the Last Minstrel,† â€Å"Marmion,† and â€Å"The Lady of the Lake. † His novels include Waverley, The Tale of Old Mortality, The Heart of Midlothian, Ivanhoe, The Talisman, St. Ronan’s Well, A Legend of Montrose, and Quentin Durward. Jane Austen Austen (1775-1814) was an English novelist who incorporated her observations of the manners and society of her time. Through dialogue and narration, she allowed her characters to be guided by common sense and traditional values. Her more famous works include Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice. Gothic novel Gothic novels use horror and medieval elements such as castles and dungeons. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, and Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights are examples of Gothic novels. Writers of Gothic Novels Ann Radcliffe Radcliffe (1764-1823) wrote The Mysteries of Udolpho and The Italian. The setting of most of her work involved innocent young women, dark mysterious castles, and nobles with secret pasts. Horace Walpole Horace Walpole (1717-1797) wrote The Castle of Otranto, considered by some to be the first Gothic novel, as well as over 4,000 published letters. Writers in the Victorian Period (1832-1901) wrote about the living conditions of the lower class. The Victorian Period was also marked by sentimental novels. The modern drama appeared toward the end of the Victorian Age. Writers of the Victorian Period of Literature (1832-1901) Alfred Lord Tennyson Tennyson (1809-1892) served as the poet laureate of Great Britain from 1850 to 1892. Some of his works include â€Å"Ulysses† and â€Å"The Charge of the Light Brigade. † Robert Browning Browning (1812-1889) used dramatic monologue in his writings. Some of his works include â€Å"Pippa Passes,† â€Å"The Pied Piper of Hamelin,† â€Å"Bells and Pomegranates,† and â€Å"My Last Duchess. † Anne Bronte Anne Bronte (1820-1849) was the youngest of the three Bronte sisters. Her novels include Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. Oscar Wilde Wilde (1854-1900) was an Irish author who published only one novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray. Wilde wrote many comedies, including A Woman of No Importance and The Importance of Being Earnest. Thomas Carlyle Carlyle (1795-1881) was a Scottish historian and essayist who criticized the laissez faire doctrine that allowed people to do as they pleased. His works include Frederick the Great. George Bernard Shaw Shaw (1856-1950) was an Irish dramatist and novelist and a member of the socialist Fabian Society. He wrote over 50 plays including Pygmalion and won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Edward Lear Lear (1812-1888) was an English artist and author famous for his limericks and children’s poems. Lear’s first publication was A Book of Nonsense, and his most famous children’s poem was â€Å"The Owl and the Pussycat. † Charlotte Bronte Charlotte Bronte (1816 – 1855) was an English author best known for her novel Jane Eyre. With her sisters Emily and Anne, she published poetry written depicting their childhood fantasy world. The poems were published under the male pseudonyms of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Emily Bronte Emily Bronte (1818 – 1848) was one of the English Bronte sisters famous for their literary style. Her only novel was the Gothic Wuthering Heights. Charles Dickens Dickens (1812 – 1859) gained fame as a writer of The Pickwick Papers. Many of his literary works were based on his life experiences and social conditions in England. His best known works include A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations. Pre-Raphaelite Poets The Pre-Raphaelite poets (named for the Italian painter Raphael) of the Victorian Age wanted to return the morality of the medieval era to the modern world. Dante Rossetti Rossetti (1828-1882) was considered a leading poet and painter in England during the 1800s. His poetry contained imagery and examples of symbolism, and his paintings included romantic scenes. His literary works included Sister Helen and The House of Life. William Morris Morris (1834-1896) was an English artist, poet, and social reformer whose work reflected an interest in medieval art and Gothic architecture. His works include The Life and Death of Jason, The Earthly Paradise, A Dream of John Ball, and News from Nowhere. Realism (1860 – 1914) Realist authors described life as it really existed. Writers examined and exposed the social, economic, and political problems of society using the dialect or language of the people. Realists saw the corruption of the Gilded Age and called for reform. They rejected Romanticism, which portrayed people in unrealistic situations. Mark Twain, Bret Harte, and Henry James were writers of Realism. Transcendentalism (1800s) Transcendentalism was a religious and philosophical movement in the early to middle 1800s. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) was the leader of the Transcendentalist movement in America. He believed that people could gain knowledge through the use of their intellect rather than from the experiences of their lives. The Transcendentalists rejected formal religious teachings. Naturalism Naturalists represented the extreme element of the Realism movement of literature. They believed that family history and environment were the main influences on the development of a person’s character and that people had no control over their fate. Political, economic, social, and heredity factors controlled the actions and fate of the people. Naturalist writers exposed the abuses and suffering of people in America. Upton Sinclair described in The Jungle, the plight of the workers in the meat packing plants in Chicago. Stephen Crane wrote about the sufferings of the soldiers during the Civil War in The Red Badge of Courage. Other Naturalist authors included Jack London, Theodore Dreiser, and Eugene O’Neill. Edwardian Period (1901-1910) This period of British Literature refers to the reign of Edward VII, the eldest son of Queen Victoria and her husband Albert. Edward was interested in the arts and founded the Royal College of Music. Writers of the Edwardian Period H. G. Wells Wells (1866-1946) was a novelist, historian, and well-known author of science fiction. His literary works include The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds, and The Shape of Things to Come. His Wealth and Happiness of Mankind addressed the social needs of people in general. Arnold Bennet Bennet (1867-1931) was an English journalist, novelist, and playwright. The film The Madness of King George was an adaptation of one of his plays. One of his most famous works was A Private Function. Rupert Brook Brook (1887-1915) was an English poet whose writings described the lives of people who suffered through the horror of World War I. One of his most famous works is The Soldier. John Masefield Masefield (1878-1967) was a novelist and poet laureate from England. His works of poetry include â€Å"The Everlasting Mercy,† â€Å"Dauber,† and â€Å"Reynard the Fox† and the novels Sard Harker and The Bird of Dawning. Modernism (1914-1945) Modernism was a literary and cultural movement that did not support the social, political, or economic values of the 1800s. Part of the reason for the movement away from the 1800s was due to the tremendous destruction and loss of life that occurred during World War I. The Modernist movement included art, philosophy, architecture, and literature in both Europe and America. Writers of the Modernism Period William B. Yeats Yeats (1865-1939) was an Irish playwright, poet, and dramatist who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923. Some of his works include the poem â€Å"The Lake Isle of Innisfree† and the plays The Countess Cathleen and The Land of Heart’s Desire. Seamus Heaney Heaney (1939-) is an Irish poet whose work focuses on the politics and culture of Northern Ireland. Some of his works include The Spirit Level and Wintering Out and North. Dylan Thomas Thomas (1914-1953) was a Welsh poet who focused on the themes of religion, death, and love. His works include Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog and Adventures in the Skin Trade. Virginia Woolf Woolf (1882-1941) was an English novelist. Her literary works focused on social and economic independence for women. Her novels include Mrs. Dalloway, The Years, and Between the Acts. Wilfred Owen Owen (1893-1918) was an English writer who wrote about World War I. His poetry focuses on the theme that war is not a glorious venture. His works include â€Å"Anthem for Doomed Youth. † T. S. Eliot Eliot (1888–1965) was an American born English poet and playwright and one of the leading writers of the Modernist period of literature. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. Some of his work includes The Hollow Men, Ash Wednesday, Four Quartets, Murder in the Cathedral, and The Cocktail Party. David Herbert Lawrence Lawrence (1885–1930) was a novelist whose literary works focused on how men and women relate to each other. His most famous work was Lady Chatterley’s Lover. His other works include The Rainbow and The Studies in Classic American Literature. Siegfried Sassoon Sassoon (1886–1967) was a British poet and author who wrote about the experiences of World War I. Sassoon’s literary works include The Old Century and Rhymed Ruminations. Aldous Huxley Huxley (1894–1963) was an English poet and novelist. His novel Brave New World criticized how science was destroying the morals of English society. His other works include Those Barren Leaves and Point Counter Point. Post-modernism Period (1945 to the present) Post-modernism includes some values and beliefs of the Modernism period. Its literature rejects traditional values of society and supports the anti-novel form. George Orwell Orwell’s (1903-1950) writings reflect his distrust of government and political and social ideologies. His works include Nineteen Eighty-Four and the modern fable Animal Farm. Joseph Conrad Conrad (1857-1924) was a prominent British novelist of the Post-modernist period. Some of his works include Lord Jim and Under Western Eyes. Conrad was a naturalized British citizen, having been born in the Ukraine. James Joyce Joyce (1882-1941) was an Irish writer who used the â€Å"stream of consciousness† technique. Some of his works include Ulysses and Finnegans Wake and the short story collection Dubliners. Katherine Mansfield Mansfield (1888-1923) was a writer from New Zealand whose pen name was Kathleen Beauchamp. Her works include The Garden Party, Bliss, and In a German Pension. Doris Lessing Lessing (1919- ) is an English novelist and author whose works focus on the role of women in politics and society. Some of her works include The Grass is Singing, Children of Violence, Under My Skin, and Walking in the Shade. Nadine Gordimer Gordimer (1923- ) is a South African novelist and short story writer. She won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Her literary works include None to Accompany Me and The House Gun. Robert Graves Graves (1895-1985) was an English poet and writer. His autobiography, Goodbye to All That, describes the horror of war. Graves’ other work include I Claudius and Claudius the God. Kingsley Amis Amis (1922–1995) was a novelist and poet from England. His literary works include Lucky Jim, The Old Devils, The Riverside Villas Murder, The Green Man, and The Folks That Live on the Hill. Anthony Powell Powell (1905–2000) was an English novelist and playwright. His plays include The Garden God and The Rest I’ll Whistle. Powell’s novels include Afternoon Men, Venusberg, From a View to a Death, and Agents and Patients. Powell’s autobiography, To Keep the Ball, was written in four volumes from 1976 to 1982. Muriel Spark Spark (1918- ) is a Scottish novelist whose literary works include The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, A Far Cry from Kensington, and Aiding and Abetting. A. S. Byatt Byatt (1936- ) is an English novelist. Her literary works include Possession, The Shadow of the Sun, and Babel Tower. Martin Amis Amis (1949- ) is an English journalist and novelist. Some of his works include The Rachel Papers, London Fields, Night Train, and Henry Water. The information in this lesson will be a valuable resource for you in the study of different periods of literature. Remember that this lesson is only an overview of some of the authors and literary works produced in Great Britain during this time period. There are many other authors that made important contributions to the literature of this time period that were not discussed in this lesson.

Hierakonpolis (Egypt) - Largest Predynastic Community in Egypt

Hierakonpolis, or City of the Hawk, is the Greek name for the modern city of Kom el-Ahmar, known to its ancient residents as Nekhen. It is a large predynastic and later townsite located 70 miles (113 km) north of Aswan on a 1.5 km (.9 mi) stretch of the west bank of the Nile River in Upper Egypt. It is the largest pre- and proto-dynastic Egyptian site discovered to date; and it is a key location for understanding the emergence of Egyptian civilization. Key Takeaways: Hierakonpolis The City of the Hawk was an important town on the Nile River when dynastic Egyptian civilization was emergingThe ancient ruins date between 4000–2890 BCEBuildings include an early dynastic palace, a ceremonial plaza, large cemeteries including animal burials, and a beer-making facilityThe site includes references to early pharaohs Menes, Khaskhemwy, and Pepi   Chronology Early Predynastic (Badarian) (ca 4000–3900 BCE)Middle Predynastic (Naqada I or Amratian) (ca 3900–3800 BCE)Late Predynastic (Naqada II or Gerzean) (ca 3800–3300 BCE)Terminal Predynastic (Naqada III or Proto-Dynastic) (ca 3300–3050 BCE) People began living in the region that would become Hierakonpolis at least as long ago as the Badarian period beginning about 4000 BCE. The predynastic part of the site includes cemeteries, domestic areas, industrial zones, and a ceremonial center, called prosaically HK29A. The city contained multiple complex settlements, with dwellings, temples, and cemeteries. Most of the Predynastic occupation of the site dates between about 3800 and 2890 BCE, during the periods known as the Naqada I-III and the first dynasty of Old Kingdom Egypt. It reached its maximum size and importance during Naqada II (Naqada is sometimes spelled Nagada), when it was a regional center and twin city to Elkab. Buildings known to have been constructed during the pre-Dynastic period include a ceremonial plaza (perhaps used for sed ceremonies), a mudbrick enclosure known as the Fort of King Khaskhemwy; an Early Dynastic palace; a tomb with painted walls; and an elite cemetery where a wide variety of animals are interred. The Painted Tomb Mural painting of burial chamber at Hierakonpolis, reconstruction. DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI / De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images Perhaps the most famous building in Hierakonpolis is an elaborate Gerzean period tomb (3500–3200 BCE), called The Painted Tomb. This tomb was cut into the ground, lined with adobe mud brick and its walls were then elaborately painted—it represents the earliest example of painted walls known in Egypt. On the tomb walls were painted images of Mesopotamian reed boats, attesting to Predynastic contacts with the eastern Mediterranean. The Painted Tomb likely represents the burial place of a proto-pharaoh, although his name is unknown. There are, however, explicit references to a handful of early pharaohs at Hierakonpolis. The Narmer palette found among the ruins includes the earliest representation of any Egyptian king, tentatively defined as Narmer, or Menes, who ruled about 3100 BCE. A mudbrick enclosure is associated with King Khaskhemwy, the last king of the second Dynasty, died 2686 BCE.  A stele dedicated to King Pepi, the third pharaoh of the 6th dynasty who ruled 2332–2287 BCE, was reported in the late 19th century excavations, but was lost to the Nile floods, and tentatively relocated in the 21st century by gamma ray spectrometry. The more typical residential structures at Hierakonpolis are post/wattle-construction houses and partly intact mudbrick-constructed pottery kilns. One particular rectangular Amratian house excavated in the 1970s was built of posts with wattle and daub walls. This dwelling was small and semi-subterranean, measuring roughly 13x11.5 ft (4x3.5 m). An industrial-level production structure with five large ceramic vats used for making beer (or possibly making bread dough) has been studied by Egyptian archaeologist Elshafaey A. E. Attia and colleagues. Ceremonial Plaza (Ritual Structure HK29A) Discovered in the 1985–1989 excavations by Michael Hoffman, HK29A is a complex of rooms surrounding an oval open space, believed to represent a predynastic ceremonial center. This set of structures was renovated at least three times over its use-life during the Naqada II period. The central courtyard measures 148x43 ft (45x13 m) and was surrounded by a fence of substantial wooden posts, which was later augmented or replaced by mud-brick walls. A pillared hall and a tremendous number of animal bone suggests to researchers that feasting took place here; the associated refuse pits include evidence of a flint workshop and nearly 70,000 potsherds. Animals Scorpion modeled in serpentine from Hierakonpolis, Early Dynastic Period (circa 2950 BCE–circa 2575 BCE). 4 in (10.3 cm) long. Ashmolean Museum / Heritage Images / Getty Images The remains of many wild animals were found in and around HK29A: mollusks, fish, reptiles (crocodile and turtle), birds, Dorcas gazelle, hare, small bovids (sheep, ibex and dama gazelle), hartebeest and aurochs, hippopotamus, dogs and jackals. Domestic animals include cattle, sheep and goats, pigs, and donkeys. The assemblage could be interpreted as the results of ceremonial feasting, which almost certainly did occur within the halls of KH29A, but Belgian archaeologists Wim Van Neer and Veerle Linseele argue that the presence of large, dangerous and rare animals suggests a ritual or ceremonial presence as well. Additionally, healed fractures on some of the wild animal bone indicate they were held in captivity for a prolonged period after their capture. Animal Burials at Royal Cemetery at Locality 6 The Pre-dynastic cemetery at Locality 6 in Hierakonpolis contains the bodies of ancient Egyptians as well as a wide variety of animal burials, including wild Anubis baboon, elephant, hartebeest, jungle cat (Felis chaus), wild donkey, leopard, crocodile, hippopotamus, auroch and ostrich, as well as domesticated donkey, sheep, goat, cattle, and cat. Many of the animal graves are near to or within larger tombs of the human elite of the early Naqada II period. Some were buried deliberately and carefully in their own graves either singly or groups of the same species. Single or multiple animal graves are found within the cemetery itself, but others are near architectural features of the cemetery, such as enclosure walls and funerary temples. More rarely, they are buried within a human tomb. Human Burials Some of the other cemeteries at Hierakonpolis were used for burying elite personages between the Amratian through Protodynastic periods, a consistent use of almost 700 years. By about 2050 BCE, during Egypts Middle Kingdom, a small community of Nubians (called C-Group culture in the archaeological literature) were residing at Hierakonpolis, and their descendants live there today. A C-Group cemetery at Locality HK27C is the northernmost physical presence of Nubian culture identified in Egypt to date. Excavated in the early 21st century, the cemetery has at least 60 known tombs, including a few mummified individuals, within an area measuring 130x82 ft (40x25 m). The cemetery shows distinctive architectural features of Nubian society: a stone or brick-ring around the burial shaft; the placement of Egyptian and hand-made Nubian pottery above ground; and remnants of traditional Nubian dress, including jewelry, hairstyles, and fine colored and perforated leather garments. Nubian Cemetery The Nubians were enemies of the Middle Kingdom elite Egyptian power source: one of the puzzles is why they were living in the city of their enemy. Few signs of interpersonal violence are evident on the skeletons. Further, the Nubians were as well fed and healthy as the Egyptians living at Hierakonpolis, in fact both males and females were more physically fit than the Egyptians. Dental data supports this group as being from Nubia, although their material culture, like that of their home country, became Egyptianized over time. The HK27C cemetery was used between the early 11th Dynasty through the early 13th, with the most burials dated to the early 12th Dynasty, C-Group phases Ib-IIa. The cemetery is to the northwest of the rock-cut elite Egyptian burials. Archaeology The earliest excavations at Hierakonpolis were conducted in the 1890s by British Egyptologists and again in the 1920s by British archaeologists James Quibell (1867–1935) and Frederick Green (1869–1949) Hierakonpolis was excavated in the 1970s and 1980s by the American Museum of Natural History and Vassar College under the direction of American archaeologists Walter Fairservis (1921–1994) and Barbara Adams (1945–2002). An international team led by Renà ©e Friedman has been working at the site, detailed in  Archaeology  magazines  Interactive Dig. The official Hierakonpolis project site  contains detailed information about ongoing studies at the site. The famous  Narmer palette  was found in the foundation of an ancient temple at Hierakonpolis and is thought to have been a dedicatory offering. A life-sized hollow copper statue of Pepi I, the last ruler of the 6th Dynasty  Old Kingdom, was discovered buried beneath the floor of a chapel. Selected Sources and Further Reading Attia, Elshafaey A. E., et al. Archaeobotanical Studies from Hierakonpolis: Evidence for Food Processing During the Predynastic Period in Egypt. Plants and People in the African Past: Progress in African Archaeobotany. Eds. Mercuri, Anna Maria, et al. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. 76–89. Print.Aziz, Akram, et al. Application of Gamma-Ray Spectrometry in Discovering the Granitic Monument of King Pepi I: A Case Study from Hierakonpolis, Aswan, Egypt. Pure and Applied Geophysics 176.4 (2019): 1639–47. Print.Bussmann, Richard. Pulling Early Kingship Together. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections. UCL Press, 2015. 42–43. Print.Friedman, Renà ©e, and Richard Bussmann. The Early Dynastic Palace at Hierankonpolis. Ancient Egyptian and Ancient near Eastern Palaces: Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant. Eds. Bietak, Manfred and Silvia Prell. Vol. 5. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2018. 7 9–99. Print.Marinova, Elena, et al. Animal Dung from Arid Environments and Archaeobotanical Methodologies for Its Analysis: An Example from Animal Burials of the Predynastic Elite Cemetery Hk6 at Hierakonpolis, Egypt. Environmental Archaeology 18.1 (2013): 58–71. Print.Van Neer, Wim, Veerle Linseele, and Renà ©e Friedman. More Animal Burials from the Predynastic Elite Cemetery of Hierankonpolis (Upper Egypt): The 2008 Season. Archaeozoology of the Near East. Eds. Mashkour, Marjan and Mark Beech. Vol. 9. Oxford UK: Oxbow Books, 2017. 388–403. Print.Van Neer, W., et al. Traumatism in the Wild Animals Kept and Offered at Predynastic Hierakonpolis, Upper Egypt. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 27.1 (2017): 86–105. Print.

Spanish Road Signs †Spanish for Drivers

Try driving in a Spanish-speaking country, and you probably wont have too much difficulty with the signs — many of the essential signs use pictures or symbols that are recognized internationally, speed limits are expressed in numbers that you already know, and destination signs probably dont need translation. Even so, and especially once youre off the major highways, you may come across signs where the following list can help. The following list indicates some of the words commonly used on signs. Keep in mind that in some regions you may see different words used than those listed here. bus stop — paradacrossing — crucecurve — curvadanger — peligrodead end — sin salidadetour — desvà ­o, desviacià ³ndowntown, city center — centroexit — salidalane — carrilno entry — entrada prohibidano passing — adelantamiento prohibidoone-way — de sentido à ºnico, sentido obligatorioparking — estacionamiento, aparcamiento (Verb forms are estacionar, aparcar and paquear, depending on the region. Parking is sometimes symbolized by a capital E or capital P, depending on the region.)pedestrians — peatonespolice — policà ­aprohibited — prohibido, prohibidaroad closed — camino cerradoslow — despaciospeed bump — topestop — alto, pare or stop, depending on the regionspeed limit — velocidad mà ¡xima (typically indicated in kilometers per hour, often abbreviated km/h)toll — peaje, cobroviewpoint — vista de interà ©syield   ceda, ceda el paso